Abstract
The Toll-like receptor (TLR) family plays an instructive role in innate immune responses against microbial pathogens, as well as the subsequent induction of adaptive immune responses. TLRs recognize specific molecular patterns found in a broad range of microbial pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, triggering inflammatory and antiviral responses and dendritic cell maturation, which result in the eradication of invading pathogens. Individual TLRs interact with different combinations of adapter proteins and activate various transcription factors such as nuclear factor (NF)-κB, activating protein-1 and interferon regulatory factors, driving a specific immune response. This review outlines the recent advances in our understanding of TLR-signaling pathways and their roles in immune responses. Further, we also discuss a new concept of TLR-independent mechanisms for recognition of microbial pathogens.
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Abbreviations
- AP-1:
-
activating protein-1
- ATF:
-
activating transcription factor
- CARD:
-
caspase-recruiting domain
- DCs:
-
dendritic cells
- ERK:
-
extracellular signal-regulated kinase
- FADD:
-
Fas-associated death domain
- IFN:
-
interferon
- IκB:
-
inhibitor of NF-κB
- IPS-1:
-
interferon promoter stimulator-1
- IRAK:
-
interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase
- IRF:
-
interferon regulatory factor
- JNK:
-
c-Jun N-terminal kinase
- LPS:
-
lipopolysaccharide
- MAL:
-
MyD88-adapter-like
- MAVS:
-
mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein
- Mda5:
-
melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5
- MyD88:
-
myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88
- NF-κB:
-
nuclear factor κB
- pDCs:
-
plasmacytoid DCs
- RIG-I:
-
retinoic acid-inducible gene I
- RIP1:
-
receptor interacting protein 1
- TAK1:
-
transforming growth factor-β-activated protein kinase 1
- TBK1:
-
TANK-binding kinase
- TIR:
-
Toll/interleukin-1 receptor
- TIRAP:
-
TIR domain-containing adapter protein
- TLR:
-
Toll-like receptor
- TNF:
-
tumor necrosis factor
- TRAF6:
-
tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6
- TRAM:
-
Trif-related adapter molecule
- Trif:
-
TIR domain-containing adapter inducing IFNβ
- VISA:
-
virus-induced signaling adapter
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Kawai, T., Akira, S. TLR signaling. Cell Death Differ 13, 816–825 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4401850
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