Keywords

1 Introduction

The Swiss Federal Council sees digitalisation as an opportunity and has set itself the goal to ensure the participation of the whole Swiss society in information and communication technology (Bundesamt für Statistik 2017). In parallel demographic changes are leading to an increased proportion of older adults and studies show that there still is a difference in adoption and use of the internet depending on age, older adults using digital services less than their younger counterparts (Friemel 2016; Seifert and Doh 2016). Now that the number of older adults using the internet is on the rise (Seifert and Doh 2016) the question of how digitalisation affects older people should be further examined.

In this paper, based on a qualitative study conducted in 2019, we ask whether theories such as the socioemotional selectivity theory and models of aging remain valid in the face of rapidly developing digital communication services by examining the effects of the instant messaging service WhatsApp on the subjective perception of social relationships of older people aged 65+ in Switzerland. We focus on WhatsApp, as according to data on Switzerland, WhatsApp was the most popular App installed on smartphones in Switzerland in 2017 (Y&R Group Switzerland 2017).

1.1 Theoretical Framework

Theories on aging such as the socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) (Carstensen et al. 2003) or the selection, optimization and compensation (SOC) model (Baltes 1997) describe age related changes in motivations, goals and priorities in the course of an individual’s life span. The SST states that older adults carefully select and invest time in meaningful social relationships in the light of the shorter lifetime left to live (Carstensen et al. 2003). Since time is perceived as more limited with increasing age, older adults mainly invest their cognitive and social resources in emotionally rewarding (inter)actions (Carstensen and Mikels 2005; Barber et al. 2016). This strategy allows them to achieve as much emotional gratification as possible in their remaining lifetime. Older adults focus on the quality of a fewer number of close relationships and are better at regulating emotions in everyday life (Carstensen et al. 2003).

Whereas the SST concentrates on emotion regulation and social relationships the SOC model, developed by Baltes (1997), more broadly describes three strategies (selection, optimization and compensation) used to lead a successful life while aging. Selection indicates a field in which an individual decides to invest resources in. Optimization relates to strategies learnt to better achieve the selection and compensation refers to actions undertaken to counteract losses, in the case of old age often related to loneliness, physical constraints or illnesses.

In the light of these theories and models, considering age in research on instant messaging is essential, as emphasised by Rosales and Fernández-Ardèvol in their study on smartphone usage of older adults in Spain (2016). As needs and values change in the course of the lifetime and social norms influence ageing, the dimension of age should be considered in studies on technology use (Rosales and Fernández-Ardèvol 2016)

However, not only personal life development must be considered. Kamin et al. (2016), in their study on social contexts of technology use in old age, develop a model of technology use and social contexts in later life which shows how technology use and social contexts are interrelated. Wahl et al. (2012) similarly propose a framework including personal aspects such as agency and belonging as well as contextual resources and state that there is not much empiric research on the relationship of theories of aging such as SOC and SST and technological solutions offered for older adults. They suggest that usage decisions are also influenced by environmental resources and demands and that further studies should address how specific technologies influence the regulation of social relationships in old age.

We found evidence in our data that for the context we examined, which consists of well educated, socially connected and physically fit older adults, the use of WhatsApp acts beneficially and in accordance with strategies and goals indicated in theories of aging such as the SOC model and SST.

2 Study

In our explorative and qualitative study on the subjective effects of WhatsApp on social relationships of older adults aged 65+ in Switzerland our sample consisted of 15 men and 15 women aged between 66 and 84 (average age: 72.5), all WhatsApp users. One-third had followed schooling up to secondary education, two-thirds had completed tertiary education. We included people with (22) and without children (8) and grand-children (19 with grandchildren, 11 without grandchildren) and living alone (9) or with their spouses/partners (21). Participants were required to be over 65 years of age, German-speaking and to have used WhatsApp within the last three months. Data collection was based on two methodological elements: the creation of ego-centered network maps, situating all social contacts of the informant within three concentric circles from close to distant (Kahn and Antonucci 1980), and qualitative, semi-structured face-to-face interviews. The interviews focused on the content, frequency and form of messages exchanged over WhatsApp, the history of use, advantages and disadvantages concerning WhatsApp and the subjective experienced effects of WhatsApp on social relations. We also asked for misunderstandings and topics our informants would not discuss via WhatsApp. All interviews were audio-recorded and fully transcribed. The data is currently being analysed by qualitative content analysis (Mayring 2015). After project completion, the anonymized transcriptions of the interviews will be made accessible through a data repository of our choice. Descriptive analysis was conducted with SPSS.

3 Preliminary Findings

3.1 Social Networks and Usage Habits

The social network of our participants consisted of 23.3 persons on average (Max = 45; Min = 23). Our informants communicated with an average of 18.1 people via WhatsApp (Max = 36; Min = 6). The communication via WhatsApp ran through all network circles. On average, 6.1 people in circle 1 communicated via WhatsApp, 6.6 in circle 2 and 5.3 in circle 3. Most of the participants used WhatsApp daily (23), some used it weekly (2), one participant used it several times per month (missing = 3). Persons that the participants used WhatsApp most frequently with were family and friends located in the circles 1 or 2. However, WhatsApp was also used for club activities (often WhatsApp groups) and voluntary work in different social areas.

3.2 Usage History

Most of the interviewees were introduced to WhatsApp and motivated to use it by family and friends. For many interviewees, their own children provided the initial motivation to use the app and were also there to help in case of technical problems or questions. The respondents largely reported an uncomplicated and self-sufficient adaption process. The preferred way to learn the use of WhatsApp was through friends or family. However, some informants reported they learned how to use WhatsApp through trial and error. Over time, our informants often expanded their usage to new features (e.g. telephony or voice messages) they either learned from others or tried out themselves. Many of the interviewees reported that they had installed the app without great expectations. The recommendation of their surroundings and the possibility to connect with other people was the main motivation to use WhatsApp. Our interviewees found WhatsApp to be a very useful tool for many situations and most of them stated that their frequency of use regarding WhatsApp was clearly increasing over the years.

3.3 Content

In general, WhatsApp was associated with light, interesting and pleasurable contents. Informants stated that they would never discuss sensitive matters over WhatsApp. They were unanimously of the opinion, that conflicts and serious discussions should be done face-to-face or at least on the telephone, where they would be able to hear their counterpart’s voice. Some reported forwarding jokes, funny pictures or videos to others, after careful consideration, whether the recipient would be interested in a specific content or not. If irrelevant or inappropriate content was received it was either ignored or immediately deleted. In general, our informants stressed the positivity and the pleasure of messages received and sent.

Next to sending text messages, exchanging pictures was one of the most used functions of WhatsApp. Besides pictures of grandchildren, a very popular motif was travel impressions but also pictures of outstanding or special moments in everyday life. Many of the interviewees emphasized that they liked to receive pictures of their loved ones’ travels or to follow the status of others. Informants pointed out they send and share contents carefully and selective (e.g. a picture of a flower is sent only to somebody who is interested in plants and gardening). At the same time, some of the informants pointed out that they send or share fewer pictures they took themselves. This was explained either by reluctance to stage themselves (on the WhatsApp status) or by the fact that they themselves did not feel as they have as much exciting content to share.

3.4 Purpose and Effects on Social Relations

The analysis of the interviews showed that Whatsapp was used for different purposes and had several impacts on the social relations of older adults.

Maintaining relationships was one purpose of our interviewee’s WhatsApp use. Although some of the interviewees reported that they added new contacts if the occasion arose, the informants focused their communication strongly on people they knew and who were important to them. One informant even reported that she would rather contact a new acquaintance via sms, as WhatsApp seemed more intimate to her. Many interviewees stated that they sent greetings to friends and family, checking up on them when they were on their minds, asking them how they and their families were. Some were inspired to contact people they had not contacted in a while by scrolling through their WhatsApp chats.

However, the use of WhatsApp to simplify the maintenance of relationships was especially salient in case of close family members or friends, especially when they were physically separated by large distances. Informants described how they appreciated receiving information from their children about their whereabouts and safe arrival at home or holiday destinations. Sharing holiday impressions or impressions from every-day life in the form of pictures, videos or texts made the geographic distance bridgeable and allowed for the continuation of relationships to people abroad. Further aspects addressed were costs and the time difference, which both could be ignored while sending WhatsApp messages to family and friends living abroad.

Creating opportunities for social exchange summarizes another important purpose of WhatsApp according to our findings. Some of the participants mentioned the advantage of WhatsApp in interaction with friends or family that have less time, due to family and work. The app made it easier to keep in touch with them, as their loved ones could answer their messages when they had time and with less effort than writing an e-mail, card or letter. The nonintrusive way of communication via WhatsApp was stressed by many participants. Many of them used WhatsApp before a phone call to make sure their friend/relative was willing to talk. Users said that they could write a message or extend an invitation without worrying about bothering their counterparts at an inappropriate time. Sending a WhatsApp message was assumed to be less disturbing than calling.

Many reported that WhatsApp was used to arrange meetings or discuss organizational matters. Whether this meant arranging to go to the cinema with a friend, inviting their children to dinner, going on a day trip with a group of friends, managing a shared holiday home, coordinating telephone calls, the care of grandchildren or confirming attendance to club events, WhatsApp was widely used to arrange appointments of all sorts. Group chats were especially mentioned as practical to organise and coordinate reoccurring or one-time events. Another use and motivation of family chats was the coordination of the care for a sick or older family member.

Intensifying relationships was one of the outcomes of our informants’ WhatsApp use on their relations. In addition to the broad scale of possibilities in expressing themselves, our interviewees stated that the frequency of exchanges with social ties had increased by using WhatsApp. This increased the feeling of intensity of relationships, as the contacts were more present and closer to our interviewees day to day lives. Through exchanging small and everyday events as well as emotional milestones, like a grandchild’s first steps, our informants gained insights into the day to day lives of their family and friends and which made them feel closer to them. Especially thanks to the various functions of WhatsApp used by our interviewees in different intensity (text messages, pictures, videos, voice messages and emojis) a multi-dimensional exchange was created, which could be shaped according to personal preference.

Grandparents described how WhatsApp complemented the face-to-face meetings with their grandchildren. Via videos and photos, they were able to witness important milestones even in the early stages of life of their grandchildren. The interviewed grandparents reported that they enjoyed receiving new videos or photos showing their grandchildren and being able to react via chat on the received content. With the shared photos and videos, the app use made the interviewed grandparents feel more involved in the life and progress of their grandchildren.

Strengthening of the sense of belonging was another effect of the WhatsApp use on our interviewee’s social contexts. Some of the interviewees stated that WhatsApp was especially important to them because they lived alone. One woman described WhatsApp as a present and very important to her life. The uncomplicated way of hearing from others on a regular basis seemed to be especially important here.

Not only regarding individuals, but also groups, WhatsApp seemed to have a positive effect on the perception of closeness and sense of belonging of our informants. WhatsApp group chats amongst families, siblings, friends and hobby or club groups were widely used, mostly for planning and coordinative purposes. While exchanges in group chats were sometimes perceived as uninteresting or irrelevant, especially in groups located in the outermost circles of our informant’s network maps, the exchanges with groups involving close friends and family made our informants feel more included. Most used were family WhatsApp groups, which included the informant, their spouse, their children and in case old enough, grandchildren. Here, information, extraordinary and every-day occurrences, greetings, pictures, thoughts, jokes and memories were exchanged. Regarding WhatsApp groups with social contacts our informants listed in the inner two circles on the network map (usually family and close friends), our informants felt more included and a stronger sense of belonging and community.

4 Conclusion

How our informants used WhatsApp shows that WhatsApp could be described as an instrument of socio-emotional selection for older adults. WhatsApp allowed our informants to select their contacts and contents carefully and enhance the positive outcome on quality of relations and perceived closeness. It made it easier for our informants to keep in touch and even intensify contacts. Older adults’ communication via WhatsApp is motivated by the encouragement of emotionally meaningful persons (family and friends; circle 1–2) and focused strongly on socio-emotionally meaningful interactions. The app was used most frequently with members of the core family (mostly the children) or close friends (located in the two inner circles of the network map) that were not living in the same household.

WhatsApp was further used to support the investment of behavioral resources to achieve the regulation of social context. It enabled communication that requires less time and effort, than other media (e.g. phone, letter, e-mail) and gave the user more freedom and flexibility. This might be especially relevant in the social interaction with family and friends that do not have time resources, due to work and other duties. Our interviewees pointed out that WhatsApp helped them to stay in touch regardless of their friends or family member’s daily schedule or lifestyle. Moreover, the technology with its various functions and interaction possibilities allowed social interactions and participation in the lives of others (e.g. grandchildren) that would not have happened without using the app. Using WhatsApp led to an enhanced relationship quality and intensified the feeling of closeness to others, since it enables continuous communication and thus a state of connected presence (Licoppe and Smoreda 2005).

Older adults further used WhatsApp to maximize their positive experience in social contexts (Kamin et al. 2016). For seniors, WhatsApp communication means an easy, light and joyful communication without the worries of bothering their counterparts in inappropriate moments.

Or findings also indicate that WhatsApp helps seniors to compensate loss in their social contexts. We use the term “loss” for geographical distance and lost synchronous life rhythms. Older adults used WhatsApp to bridge geographical distances to family and friends abroad. Furthermore, WhatsApp helped people that live alone feel more connected and to achieve a greater sense of belonging. As children start their own family and are less available in terms of time and space the family chat was used to keep in touch in the small moments of time available. These findings support the assumption, that technology use can help combat loneliness (Kamin et al. 2016) and goes in line with previous studies on cellphone/internet use and social isolation, loneliness and depression (Minagawa and Saito 2014; Cotten et al. 2014).

Taken together, our findings for this context of well connected, well-educated and physically fit older adults, show evidence that aging processes are not fundamentally changed by digitalisation, and instead that older adults actively integrate technology into their lives to reach their social goals and motivations.