![Parts of a Neuron Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron. Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons. Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-110819114937-phpapp02/85/Chapter2-10-320.jpg)
![Synapse Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-110819114937-phpapp02/85/Chapter2-16-320.jpg)
![Brain Stem The Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing. Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-110819114937-phpapp02/85/Chapter2-48-320.jpg)
![Brain Stem The Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-110819114937-phpapp02/85/Chapter2-49-320.jpg)
![Amygdala The Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] consists of two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-110819114937-phpapp02/85/Chapter2-52-320.jpg)
Chapter2
- 1. Neuroscience and Behavior Chapter 2
- 2. Neuroscience and Behavior Neural Communication Neurons How Neurons Communicate How Neurotransmitters Influence Us The Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Central Nervous System
- 3. Neuroscience and Behavior The Endocrine System The Brain The Tools of Discovery Older Brain Structures The Cerebral Cortex Our Divided Brain Left Brain-Right Brain
- 4. History of Mind Plato correctly placed mind in the brain. However, his student Aristotle believed that mind was in the heart. Ancient Conceptions About Mind Today we believe mind and brain are faces of the same coin. Everything that is psychological is simultaneously biological.
- 5. History of Mind In 1800, Franz Gall suggested that bumps of the skull represented mental abilities. His theory, though incorrect, nevertheless proposed that different mental abilities were modular. Phrenology Bettman/ Corbis
- 6. Neural Communication The body’s information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons .
- 7. Neural Communication We are a biopsychosocial system. Cellular Level (Interconnected Neurons) Organ Level (Brain) System Level (Information Processing) Individual Level (Human Being) Group Level (Family) Ethnic Level (Culture) Community Level (Society)
- 8. Neural Communication Neurobiologists and other investigators understand that humans and animals operate similarly when processing information. Note the similarities in the above brain regions, which are all engaged in information processing.
- 9. Neuron A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
- 10. Parts of a Neuron Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron. Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons. Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.
- 11. Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.
- 12. Depolarization & Hyperpolarization Depolarization: Depolarization occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it more prone to firing an action potential. Hyperpolarization occurs when negative ions enter the neuron, making it less prone to firing an action potential.
- 13. Threshold Threshold: Each neuron receives depolarizing and hyperpolarizing currents from many neurons. When the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
- 14. Refractory Period & Pumps Refractory Period: After a neuron fires an action potential it pauses for a short period to recharge itself to fire again. Sodium-Potassium Pumps: Sodium-potassium pumps pump positive ions out from the inside of the neuron, making them ready for another action potential.
- 15. Action Potential Properties All-or-None Response: When the depolarizing current exceeds the threshold, a neuron will fire. If the depolarizing current fails to exceed the threshold, a neuron will not fire. Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.
- 16. Synapse Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
- 17. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
- 18. Reuptake Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.
- 19. How Neurotransmitters Influence Us? Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation. From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press
- 20. Dopamine Pathways Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases such as schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989 University of California Press
- 22. Lock & Key Mechanism Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.
- 23. Agonists
- 24. Antagonists
- 25. Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- 26. The Nervous System Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system. Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
- 28. Kinds of Neurons Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two neurons. Sensory Neuron (Bipolar) Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar) Motor Neuron (Multipolar)
- 29. Kinds of Glial Cells Astrocytes provide nutrition to neurons. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells insulate neurons as myelin. Astrocytes
- 30. Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles.
- 31. The Nerves Nerves consist of neural “cables” containing many axons. They are part of the peripheral nervous system and connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to the central nervous system.
- 32. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.
- 33. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Sympathetic NS “Arouses” (fight-or-flight) Parasympathetic NS “Calms” (rest and digest)
- 34. Central Nervous System The Spinal Cord and Reflexes Simple Reflex
- 35. Central Nervous System The Brain and Neural Networks Complex Neural Network Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain. Theses networks are complex and modify with growth and experience.
- 36. The Endocrine System The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.
- 37. Hormones Hormones are chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body. For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar and feelings of excitement during emergency situations.
- 38. Pituitary Gland Is called the “master gland.” The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance.
- 39. Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands Regulate metabolic and calcium rate.
- 40. Adrenal Glands Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism.
- 41. Gonads Sex glands are located in different places in men and women. They regulate bodily development and maintain reproductive organs in adults.
- 42. The Brain A brain lesion experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal behaviors after such destruction. Techniques to Study the Brain Hubel (1990)
- 43. Clinical Observation Clinical observations have shed light on a number of brain disorders. Alterations in brain morphology due to neurological and psychiatric diseases are now being catalogued. Tom Landers/ Boston Globe
- 44. Electroencephalogram (EEG) An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. AJ Photo/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
- 45. PET Scan PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task. Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories
- 46. MRI Scan MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue. Top images show ventricular enlargement in a schizophrenic patient. Bottom image shows brain regions when a participants lies. Both photos from Daniel Weinberger, M.D., CBDB, NIMH James Salzano/ Salzano Photo Lucy Reading/ Lucy Illustrations
- 47. Older Brain Structures The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival functions.
- 48. Brain Stem The Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing. Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
- 49. Brain Stem The Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
- 50. The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. Cerebellum
- 51. The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. The Limbic System
- 52. Amygdala The Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] consists of two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.
- 53. Hypothalamus The Hypothalamus lies below ( hypo ) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
- 54. Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the reward (hypothalamus) center (top picture). When the limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate fields or climb up a tree (bottom picture). Reward Center Sanjiv Talwar, SUNY Downstate
- 55. The Cerebral Cortex The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.
- 56. Structure of the Cortex Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes that are separated by prominent fissures. These lobes are the frontal lobe (forehead), parietal lobe (top to rear head), occipital lobe (back head) and temporal lobe (side of head).
- 57. Functions of the Cortex The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) receives information from skin surface and sense organs.
- 58. Visual Function The functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex is active as the subject looks at faces. Courtesy of V.P. Clark, K. Keill, J. Ma. Maisog, S. Courtney, L.G. Ungerleider, and J.V. Haxby, National Institute of Mental Health
- 59. Auditory Function The functional MRI scan shows the auditory cortex is active in patients who hallucinate.
- 60. More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex. Association Areas
- 61. Language Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impaired understanding).
- 62. Specialization & Integration Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words
- 63. The brain is sculpted by our genes but also by our experiences. Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some type of injury or illness. The Brain’s Plasticity
- 64. Our Divided Brain Our brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere processes reading, writing, speaking, mathematics, and comprehension skills. In the 1960s, it was termed as the dominant brain.
- 65. Splitting the Brain A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. Corpus Callosum Martin M. Rother Courtesy of Terence Williams, University of Iowa
- 66. Split Brain Patients With the corpus callosum severed, objects (apple) presented in the right visual field can be named. Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot.
- 68. Try This! Try drawing one shape with your left hand and one with your right hand, simultaneously. BBC
- 69. Non-Split Brains People with intact brains also show left-right hemispheric differences in mental abilities. A number of brain scan studies show normal individuals engage their right brain when completing a perceptual task and their left brain when carrying out a linguistic task.
- 70. Brain Organization & Handedness Is handedness inherited? Yes. Archival and historic studies, as well as modern medical studies, show that the right hand is preferred. This suggests genes and/or prenatal factors influence handedness.
- 71. Is it Alright to be Left Handed? Being left handed is difficult in a right-handed world.
- 72. Is it Alright to be Left Handed? The percentage of left-handed individuals decreases sharply in samples of older people (Coren, 1993).
Editor's Notes
- #5: OBJECTIVE 1 | Explain why psychologists are concerned with human biology, and describe the ill-fated phrenology theory.
- #8: OBJECTIVE 2 | Explain how viewing each person as a biopsychosocial system helps us understand human behavior, and discuss why researchers study other animals in search of clues to human neural processes.
- #10: OBJECTIVE 3 | Describe parts of a neuron and explain how its impulses are generated.
- #17: OBJECTIVE 4 | Describe how nerve cells communicate. Synapse was coined by Lord Sherrington (1857-1952) who inferred it through behavioral experiments. Cajal (1852-1934) described the synapse based on his anatomical studies of the brain.
- #20: OBJECTIVE 5 | Describe how neurotransmitters affect behavior and outline the effects of acetylcholine and endorphins.
- #23: OBJECTIVE 6 | Explain how drugs and other chemicals affect neurotransmission, and describe the contrasting effects of agonists and antagonists.
- #26: OBJECTIVE 7 | Describe the nervous system’s two major divisions, and identify the tree types of neurons that transmit information through the system.
- #31: OBJECTIVE 8 | Identify the subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system, and describe their functions.
- #35: OBJECTIVE 9 | Contrast the simplicity of the reflex pathways with the complexity of neural networks.
- #37: OBJECTIVE 10 | Describe the nature and functions of the endocrine system and its interaction with the nervous system.
- #43: OBJECTIVE 11 | Describe several techniques for studying the brain.
- #48: OBJECTIVE 12 | Describe the components of the brainstem and summarize the functions of the brainstem, thalamus and cerebellum.
- #52: OBJECTIVE 13 | Describe the structures and functions of the limbic system, and explain how one of these structures controls the pituitary gland.
- #56: OBJECTIVE 14 | Define cerebral cortex and explain its importance fro the human brain.
- #57: OBJECTIVE 15 | Identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
- #58: OBJECTIVE 16 | Summarize some of the findings on the functions of the motor cortex and the sensory cortex, and discuss the importance of the association areas.
- #62: OBJECTIVE 17 | Describe the five brain areas that would be involved if you read this sentence aloud.
- #64: OBJECTIVE 18 | Discuss brain’s plasticity following injury or illness.
- #65: OBJECTIVE 19 | Describe split-brain research, and explain how it helps us to understand the functions of our left and right hemispheres.
- #71: OBJECTIVE 20 | Discuss the relationship among brain organization, handedness, and mortality.