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Federation of Central America (1921–1922)

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Federation of Central America
Federación de Centro América
1921–1922
El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, the three members of the federation
El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras, the three members of the federation
LocationCentral America
CapitalTegucigalpa
Common languagesSpanish
Demonym(s)Central American
GovernmentFederal republic
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
History 
• Pact of Union
19 January 1921
• Established
6 April 1921
• Constitution
9 September 1921
• Guatemalan coup
5 December 1921
• Disestablished
January 1922
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Today part ofEl Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras

The Federation of Central America (Spanish: Federación de Centro América)[1] was a short-lived federal republic that existed in Central America between 1921 and 1922. The federation consisted of the Central American nations of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Delegations from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua drafted the Pact of Union of Central America in January 1921, and the pact was signed by the former four countries; Nicaragua refused to sign as it conflicted with the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty it had with the United States. By 6 April 1921, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras had ratified the pact, officially establishing the Federation of Central America. Costa Rica rejected the pact in June 1921 and never joined the federation. The federation's constitution was ratified on 9 September 1921. The federation dissolved in January 1922 after the Guatemalan government was overthrown the month prior.

Background

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On 15 September 1821, Central America declared its independence from the Spanish Empire, and in 1823, it established the Federal Republic of Central America. The federal republic consisted of five members: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.[2] The federal republic collapsed between 1838 and 1841 when all its members declared their independence.[3][4] Since the collapse of the Federal Republic of Central America, its former members had attempted to restore it on several occasions including during the 19th century, but all attempts eventually failed.[5][6]

History

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Establishment

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On 4 December 1920, delegations from Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua met in San José, Costa Rica to negotiate the reestablishment of a united Central American state.[7][a] The negotiations were held as the region's government wanted to restore the Federal Republic of Central America as the centenary of Central American independence was approaching on 15 September 1921.[8] After five meetings, the delegations drafted the Pact of Union of Central America outlining the framework of a Central American state on 17 January 1921,[7] and on 19 January, the delegations of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras signed a pact.[9][10] The pact presented the Federation of Central America as the successor of the Federal Republic of Central America.[1]

Nicaragua did not sign the pact as its government was concerned that joining the federation would violate the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty that Nicaragua had with the United States.[11] While the Nicaraguan government did not want to join the federation, many Nicaraguans did and the U.S. sent war munitions to the Nicaraguan government to prevent a rebellion from occurring.[12] The pact's signatories, especially Costa Rica,[b] encouraged the Nicaraguan government to sign the pact and break the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty to no avail.[14] Article XIX of the pact allowed Nicaragua to join the federation whenever it wished.[15] El Salvador ratified the pact on 23 January 1921, followed by Honduras on 25 January and Guatemala on 6 April; the pact stipulated that it would go into full effect once at least three members had ratified it, marking 6 April 1921 as the foundation of the Federation of Central America.[16] Although Costa Rica signed the pact, the Constitutional Congress of Costa Rica rejected it on 21 June 1921 due to the Nicaraguan government's refusal to join the federation.[17]

The pact established the National Constituent Assembly to draft the country's constitution. The assembly consisted of fourteen Salvadorans, fifteen Guatemalans, and fifteen Hondurans.[18][19] The assembly convened in Tegucigalpa, Honduras (the federation's capital) in July 1921. It was led by former Honduran president Policarpo Bonilla.[20] The assembly proclaimed the constitution on 9 September 1921 and it was ratified by El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras on that same day.[21][22] Legislative elections were held in October 1921 and the elected members were scheduled to assume office in January 1922.[23]

Dissolution

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A black-and-white portrait photograph of José María Orellana in early 20th-century military uniform
General José María Orellana's coup in Guatemala led to the federation's collapse.

On 5 December 1921, the Guatemalan government of President Carlos Herrera was overthrown by the Armed Forces of Guatemala and the United Fruit Company.[24][25] Herrera's successor, General José María Orellana declared Guatemala's withdrawal from the Federation of Central America.[26][27] The United States government dissuaded El Salvador and Honduras from launching a military intervention in Guatemala to preserve the federation.[28] The federation's legislature met on 4 January 1922 in Tegucigalpa. Despite the coup in Guatemala, the Guatemalan deputies assumed office.[29] Later that month, a member of the Central American legislature told Edward Perry, a contributor to The Hispanic American Historical Review, that the coup had "overturned" the federation's politics and that "the legal functioning of the new political organism is impossible" with the rise of an unelected government in Guatemala.[25]

Contemporary commentators accused the United States' preventing of an intervention from leading to the federation's collapse, but American historian Kenneth Grieb wrote that the coup was the catalyst for the collapse while the U.S. "merely recognized reality and acknowledged that the Federation was already dead".[30] Regardless, the United States sought to maintain regional stability and held negotiations between the Central American countries in 1922 and 1923 culminating in the signing of the 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity.[31] The Federation of Central America is the most recent attempt to unite Central America under a single country.[32]

Government and politics

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The constitution of the Federation of Central America declared the country to be "perpetual and indissoluble" and designated El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras as states within the republic.[33] A federal district was also planned to be established around the country's capital city in Tegucigalpa.[18][26] It also declared the government to be "republican, popular, and responsible". The federal government consisted of legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[34]

Federal government

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A black-and-white photograph of a group of men in early 20th century formal attire standing in front of a building
Members of the Central American federal government on 7 August 1921

The federation's bicameral legislature composed of the Senate (upper house) and the Chamber of Deputies (lower house). The Senate consisted of three senators and three substitute senators from each state, while the Chamber of Deputies consisted of one deputy and one substitute deputy representing 100,000 people each. Both chambers of the legislature required three-fourths of its members to be present to reach quorum. Elections for the legislature and executive were to be held through popular vote. Senators were elected for six-year terms, and one-third of the Senate was elected each election cycle. There were no legislative term-limits.[20][34]

The executive branch was led by a federal council consisting of one delegate and one substitute delegate from each state. Delegates of the federal council were elected for five-year terms. The council elected a president and a vice president from its members for one year terms; they were not allowed to be re-elected consecutively. The president of the council also served as the president of the federation.[20][35][36] The Supreme Court consisted of seven justices and three substitute justices elected by the Senate.[37]

Citizenship

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The constitution granted citizenship to anyone born within the federation, with the exception of the children of diplomats, who meet one of three requirements: were at least 21 years old, were at least 18 years old and were married, or were literate. The constitution further stipulated that by 1928, literacy would become a requirement for citizens to be eligible to vote in state and federal elections. Women were granted suffrage if they married or widowed, literate, and at least 21 years old; 25 years old and had received a primary education; or possessed a certain amount of wealth. Women were allowed to hold public office as long as they were not elected or if the office held no jurisdiction.[38]

Relations with the United States

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In late 1921, the federal government sent a delegation to the United States seeking diplomatic recognition.[23] Before the federation's creation, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson "unalterably opposed" a united Central America as he believed the new country would oppose the United States. Wilson's successor, Warren G. Harding, reassessed this position and was more open to supporting such a federation.[39] Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes did not believe that the federation would threaten the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty.[40] After the coup in Guatemala, the United States Department of State believed that the federation would likely collapse, and as such, the United States never formally recognized the federation.[28]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The delegates that negotiated the Pact of Union of Central America were the Costa Ricans Alejandro Alvarado Quirós [es] and Cleto González Víquez, Salvadorans Reyes Arrieta Rossi and Miguel Tomás Medina, Guatemalans Salvador Falla and Carlos Salazar, Hondurans Alberto Uclés and Mariano Vásquez, and Nicaraguans Manuel Pasos Arana and Ramón Castillo.[7]
  2. ^ At the time, the Costa Rican government viewed the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States as a violation of its own sovereign rights as the treaty forbade Nicaragua from granting concessions to build a canal in the San Juan River that marks much of the Costa Rica–Nicaragua border; Costa Rica was not consulted regarding this aspect of the treaty.[13]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 53.
  2. ^ Sanz y Tovar 1950, pp. 119 & 121.
  3. ^ Sanz y Tovar 1950, pp. 123–124.
  4. ^ Thomas 1952, p. 862.
  5. ^ Thomas 1952, pp. 863–868.
  6. ^ Bernal Ramírez & Quijano de Batres 2009, p. 77.
  7. ^ a b c Tipografía Nacional 1921, pp. 3–4.
  8. ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 592.
  9. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 30 & 35.
  10. ^ Gallardo 1959, p. 173.
  11. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 35–36.
  12. ^ Saenz 1927, p. 917.
  13. ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 591.
  14. ^ Salisbury 1977, pp. 591–593.
  15. ^ Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 60.
  16. ^ Perry 1922, p. 35.
  17. ^ Salisbury 1977, p. 595.
  18. ^ a b Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 54.
  19. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 38–39.
  20. ^ a b c Grieb 1967, p. 109.
  21. ^ Bardales Ponce & Lemus Rivas 2021, p. 28.
  22. ^ Perry 1922, p. 39.
  23. ^ a b Grieb 1967, p. 110.
  24. ^ Bardales Ponce & Lemus Rivas 2021, p. 29.
  25. ^ a b Perry 1922, p. 48.
  26. ^ a b Sanz y Tovar 1950, p. 129.
  27. ^ Thomas 1952, p. 891.
  28. ^ a b Grieb 1967, p. 116.
  29. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 47–48.
  30. ^ Grieb 1967, p. 117.
  31. ^ Grieb 1967, p. 121.
  32. ^ Bernal Ramírez & Quijano de Batres 2009, p. 74.
  33. ^ Perry 1922, p. 40.
  34. ^ a b Perry 1922, p. 46.
  35. ^ Tipografía Nacional 1921, p. 55.
  36. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 46–47.
  37. ^ Perry 1922, p. 47.
  38. ^ Perry 1922, pp. 40–42.
  39. ^ Grieb 1967, p. 111.
  40. ^ Grieb 1967, p. 114.

Bibliography

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Books

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  • Bernal Ramírez, Luis Guillermo & Quijano de Batres, Ana Elia, eds. (2009). Historia 2 El Salvador [History 2 El Salvador] (PDF). Historia El Salvador (in Spanish). El Salvador: Ministry of Education. ISBN 9789992363683. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
  • Protocolo de la Conferencia de Plenipotenciarios Centroamericanos Reunida en San José de Costa Rica el 4 de Diciembre de 1920 [Protocol of the Conference of Central American Plenipotentiaries in San José of Costa Rica on 4 December 1920] (in Spanish). Vol. 42. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Tipografía Nacional. 1921. LCCN 33034532. OCLC 1051757299. Retrieved 25 March 2025.

Journals

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