Unit 1 Psychology: Foundations and Methods
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Here are the steps I would take to design a valid experiment to test this hypothesis: 1. Randomly select and assign participants diagnosed with ADD to either the experimental group (given 20mg Adderall) or the control group (given placebo). 2. Use double-blind procedures so neither participants nor experimenters know who receives Adderall vs placebo. 3. Have all participants complete a focus time task both before and after taking the assigned pill to control for individual differences and measure any within-subject changes. 4. Use a standardized focus time task and measure focus time objectively (e.g. time on task) to reduce observer bias. 5. Ensure groups are equivalent on relevant demographic variables
Unit 1 Psychology: Foundations and Methods
- 1. Psychology Unit 1: Foundations and Research
- 2. Unit 1 Overview • PPS 1.1-Define psychology as a discipline and identify its goals as a science • PPS 1.2-Describe the emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline • PPS-1.3-Describe perspectives employed to understand behavior and mental processes • PPS-1.4-Explain how psychology evolved as a scientific discipline • RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology • RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative and qualitative research methods • RMS 2.1: Identify ethical standards psychologist must address regarding research with human participants. Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology? You will need to be able to “Do” the following:
- 3. • Psychology is a social science that studies mental processing and behavior • Psychology employs several different major theoretical perspectives and/or subfields • Psychologists use several approaches to conducting research, all sociologists follow a seven step research process, and psychologists are bound by ethical guidelines. You will need to be able to “Understand” the following:
- 4. Unit 1 Outline Concept 1: The Discipline of Psychology Concept 2: Foundations and Perspectives Concept 3: Modern Perspectives Concept 4: Conducting Psychological Research Lesson: 1 2 3 Concept 5: Ethics
- 5. Foundations and Perspectives Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology? EQ 1: What is Psychology? EQ 2: How have historical figures, philosophical perspectives and various theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology? EQ 3: How is psychology distinguished by different domains? Vocabulary • Structuralism • Functionalism • Gestalt • Charles Darwin • Sigmund Freud • Carl Rogers • Wilhelm Wundt • William James • John Watson • B.F. Skinner • Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behavioral (Learning) Perspective • Biological Perspective • Humanistic Perspective • Sociocultural Perspective
- 6. Activator • Who is the most important person in psychology? Why?
- 7. Early Influence • “What is the nature of the mind and soul?” • “What is the relationship between the mind and the body?” Psyche = Soul ology = Study of
- 8. What is psychology? Psych = Soul -ology = Study of Assessment Prompt: Create a definition for Psychology Definition: The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.
- 9. Psychological Fields Applied vs Research How does a psychiatrist differ from a psychologist? A psychiatrist has a medical degree and can prescribe medicine in addition to therapy.
- 10. Presentations
- 11. Early Influence Wilhelm Wundt • Father of Psychology • Developed concept of introspection • 1st Psychology Laboratory for studying humans • Moved from the philosophy of mental process to the science of mental process Edward Titchener • Expanded on Wundt’s teaching calling it structuralism Margaret Washburn G. Stanley Hall • Receives first Ph.D. based on psychological research • Establishes first U.S. psychology lab at John’s Hopkins • Founder of A.P.A
- 12. Early Influence William James • Father of American Psychology • Rejected structuralism • Founder of functionalism • Wrote first psychology textbook Mary Whinton CalkinsCharles Darwin • Proposed idea of Natural Selection. Physical trait that aid in survival are passed on.
- 13. Early Influence • Objected to structuralist point of view. Experiences couldn’t be broken down into parts and be properly understood. • Founders of Gestalt psychology. • Gestalt (German) • “organized wholes” or “whole shape” • People naturally seek out patterns (“wholes”) in sensory information • “The sum is greater than its parts”
- 14. Early Influence Carl Jung Alfred Adler Anna Freud Erik Erikson Sigmund Freud • Founder of Psychoanalysis • Sought to help patients (therapy) • Idea of the unconscious mind
- 15. Early Influence Ivan Pavlov • His early medical research focused on stimulus / response relationship John Watson • Mental events should be ignored • Founder of behaviorism • Psychology should focus on observable behavior. • Most important determinate of behavior is learning B.F. Skinner • Focused on the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior • Founder of operant conditioning Mary Cover Jones • Early pioneer of behavioral therapy • Began the process of “counterconditioning”
- 16. Diversity in Psychology Gilbert Haven Jones • Taught at the local black high school in Carlisle, Pa • Masters degree in philosophy from Dickinson College. • Completed his Ph.D. in philosophy two years in Germany. • Jones returned to the United States where he taught at First African American professor of psychology Mary Whinton Calkins • Denied degree by Harvard due to gender • 1st female president of the American Psychological Association Margaret Washburn 1st Women to receive a Ph.D. in psychology
- 17. Diversity in Psychology George (Jorg) Sanchez • Father of “Chicano Psychology” • Worked to show cultural bias in intelligence testing Kenneth and Mamie Clark • Worked to show the negative effects of school segregation Francis Cecil Sumner • First African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (1920) • Referred to as the "Father of African American Psychology“
- 18. Foundational Perspectives Summarize the beliefs of each of the following perspectives. Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt Psychoanalysis Behaviorism
- 19. Structuralism • Wilhelm Wundt • Focused on the basic elements of consciousness • “What are the elements of psychological processes?” • Broke consciousness down (Human Mind) • Objective sensations • Accurately reflect outside world • Subjective sensations • Included emotional experiences • Introspection: a person carefully examines and reports their own experiences
- 20. Functionalism • William James • Stated conscious experience can’t be broken down • Focused on how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment • “What is the purpose of behavior and process?” • Used introspection and observation • Evolution
- 21. Foundations and Perspectives Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology? EQ 1: How is psychology distinguished by different domains? Vocabulary • Structuralism • Functionalism • Gestalt • Charles Darwin • Sigmund Freud • Carl Rogers • Wilhelm Wundt • William James • John Watson • B.F. Skinner • Psychoanalytic Perspective • Behavioral (Learning) Perspective • Biological Perspective • Humanistic Perspective • Sociocultural Perspective
- 22. Activator • Who is the most important person in psychology? Why?
- 23. Modern Psychological Perspectives Psychodynamic Behavioral Cognitive Biopsychological Humanistic Sociocultural Evolutionary Summarize the key aspects of each perspective. When applicable, identify which Key Contributors are associated with a perspective. Eclecticism: a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single viewpoint, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases.
- 24. Psychodynamic Approach • Rooted in the ideas of Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis • Behavior and mental process reflects the unconscious struggle • Unconscious desires vs the need to follow rules • Not as focused on unconscious sexual desires as Psychoanalysis • More focus on sense of self and discovery of other motives
- 25. Behavioral (Learning) Approach • Rooted in the ideas of Watson and Skinner • Focus is on observable behavior and how behavior is learned • Rewards and punishments affect behavior • Many now also try to understand thoughts/cognition
- 26. Cognitive Approach • Focuses on • How we take in, mentally represent, and store information • How we perceive and process information • How the cognitive process affects behavior • Text Example-Butting in line (pg. 22)
- 27. Humanistic Approach • Influenced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow • Behavior is the result of people choosing how to think and act • Unique experiences guide thoughts and actions • Choices are steered by individual’s unique perspectives • See the world as friendly -> optimistic and secure • People have a natural tendency to grow toward their highest potential
- 28. Bio(psycho)logical Approach • Behavior and Mental Process shaped by the biological process • Study the effects of hormones, genes, and the activity of the nervous system • They would examine brain activity using brain scans when examining thinking • Treatment through medications • Highly influential today
- 29. Evolutionary Approach • Based on Darwin’s Ideas of evolution and natural selection • Focus on Evolution’s impact on genes • Genes result in characteristics and behaviors that are useful and adaptive • Assumes behavior and mental process are the result of evolution. • Ex. Aggression is a form of territorial protection
- 30. Sociocultural • Study the effect that people have on each other whether it is individually or in large groups • Combines: • Social Psychology – study of groups, social roles, and rules of social action • Cultural Psychology – studies cultural norms, values, and expectations
- 31. Biopsychosocial Approach • An integrated viewpoint that incorporates various levels of analysis and offers a more complete picture of any given behavior or mental process.
- 32. Unit 2 Overview • RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology • RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative and qualitative research methods • RMS 2.1: Identify ethical standards psychologist must address regarding research with human participants. Unit EQ: How have philosophical perspectives and theoretical approaches shaped the development of psychology? You will need to be able to “Do” the following:
- 33. • Psychologists use several approaches to conducting research, all sociologists follow a seven step research process, and psychologists are bound by ethical guidelines. You will need to be able to “Understand” the following:
- 34. Unit 2 Outline Concept 1: Conducting Psychological Research Lesson: 1 2 3 Concept 2: Ethics
- 35. Conducting Psychological Research Vocabulary • scientific method • Dependent variable • Independent variable • Experimental group • Control group • Double-blind study • Confounding variable • Placebo EQ: How do psychologists use a variety of scientific research methods to draw reasonable conclusions? • RMS 1.1: Describe the scientific method and its role in psychology • RMS 1.2: Describe and compare a variety of quantitative and qualitative research methods
- 36. Activator: Steps of the Scientific Method
- 38. 1. Question • Research questions are best focused on behavior rather than constructs that cannot be seen or measured directly. 2. Hypothesis • Form a hypothesis about the answer to the research question. • A hypothesis is an educated guess • Specifies a relationship between two aspects. (i.e. IV & DV) 3. Testing the Hypothesis • A hypothesis cannot be considered to be correct until it has been scientifically tested and proved to be right.. • May use a variety of research methods to test a hypothesis. 4. Analyzing the Results • What do their findings mean? • Psychologists often look for patterns and relationships in the data. 5. Drawing Conclusions • Psychologists draw conclusions about their research question and their hypothesis. • When observations do not support a hypothesis, they often must change the theories or beliefs from which the hypothesis was derived.
- 39. • Psychologists use the experimental method to answer questions about cause and effect. • The hypothesis specifies the relationship between two aspects. (i.e. the IV and DV) • Independent Variables (IV) and Dependent Variables (DV) • Experiments have variables, which are factors that can vary, or change. • The independent variable is the factor that researchers manipulate. • The dependent variable is the factor whose value depends on a change made to the independent variable. ResearchDesign:Hypothesisand Variables
- 40. Research Design: Operational Definition • Specific statements describing how the IV is manipulated and how the DV is measured.
- 41. Replication • The ability of an entire experiment or study to be reproduced, either by the researcher or by someone else working independently. • It is one of the main principles of the scientific method • Why?
- 42. Adderall Experiment Exercise 1 Hypothesis: If a person diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is given 20mg of Adderall then his/her focus time will increase. Assessment Prompt: Using all the hypothesis above, identify the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). Write your answer on a sheet of paper. IVDV
- 43. Extraneous & Confounding Variables Extraneous Variables: Undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that an experimenter is examining. Other Factors (Extraneous & Confounding Variables) Confounding Variables: Extraneous variables that vary with the levels of the independent variable are the most dangerous type in terms of challenging the validity of experimental results.
- 44. Variables Questions: 1. In the Bystander Effect study or the Adderall Study, what might be some of the confounding variables? 2. What does the phrase “the power of suggestion” mean?
- 45. Design an Experiment • Assuming that the “power of suggestion” is the only variable you are worried about, you are to design an experiment that compensates for this variable. • The details of your experiment should be written down.
- 46. Blind Studies Double-Blind Studies • Participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment. • Double-blind studies help researchers avoid the influence of expectations and remain unbiased. Single-Blind Studies • Participants unaware of the treatment. • Helps to avoid The Placebo Effect – A placebo is a substance or treatment that has no effect apart from a person’s belief in its effect. – Feeling better simply because we expect to feel better—and for no other reason—is an example of the placebo effect.
- 47. Groups • Experimental and Control Groups – Members of an experimental group receive the treatment; members of a control group do not. – All other conditions are held constant for both the experimental group and the control group. – A controlled experiment uses both a control group and an experiment group.
- 48. Selection of Subjects Random Sample • The process of choosing the research participants from the population • Happen BEFORE assignment Random Assignment • Each participant has equal chance of being placed into any group • Placement into experimental or control group
- 49. Samples • Sampling Bias (Selection Bias) is systematic error due to a non- random sample of a population, causing some members of the population to be less likely to be included than others, resulting in a biased sample. • Ensure samples accurately represent the population. • Random Assignment & Sample • individuals are selected by chance from the target population. • Stratified Sample • consists of subgroups in the population that are represented proportionally. • A large random sample is more likely to be accurately stratified even if researchers take no steps to ensure that it is.
- 50. ParticipatoryLearning – FlawedExperiment 1. Hypothesis: “Smart” people tend to be more open-minded and flexible. 2. Subjects: To test the hypothesis above, the experimenter asks a wide variety of friends to complete a puzzle that requires flexibility. Then he or she compares their scores. 3. Procedure: The experimenter tries to test the hypothesis above on his friends, but they are too busy. Instead, he or she uses strangers. The experimenter administers a brief intelligence test, then gives subjects a test of flexibility. In the morning he or she finds a group in the cafeteria and passes out the tests to them. In the afternoon, the experimenter finds people in the library who are studying by themselves. Pick out the flaws in the following statement.
- 51. Extraneous Variables • Placebo Effect • Experimenter Effect (Bias) • Observer Bias • Sampling Bias/Selection Bias/Volunteer Bias • Observer Effect (Hawthorne Effect) • Courtesy Bias Bias is a predisposition to a certain point of view
- 52. Quasi-Experiment (Natural Experiments) • Quasi (Similar or Seemingly) • A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- random assignment. • Experiments that take advantage of natural occurrences are quasi-experiments • Example 1: comparing achievement level of first-born children with that of later-born children • Example 2: comparing student performance at two schools, one of which has a lower student-teacher ratio. • The experimenter is unable to assign subjects to treatment level - the subjects are already in pre-existing groups.
- 53. Adderall Experiment Exercise 2 Hypothesis: If a person diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is given 20mg of Adderall then his/her focus time will increase. Assessment Prompt : Using all terms on the vocabulary sheet, design and label and experiment that tests the above hypothesis
- 54. Adderall Experiment Exercise 2 Vocabulary Application to the Experiment Independent Variable Dependent Variable Control Group Experimental Group Placebo Single-Blind Study Double-Blind Study 20mg of Adderall Groups that receives the Placebo not the Adderall Group that receives the Adderall False pill to make up for the power of suggestion Researcher knows who took the Adderall/Subject Doesn’t Neither Researcher or Subject knows who took Adderall Ability to Focus
- 55. • The tendency of research subjects to change their behavior as a result of their awareness of being observed. • It was named for a 1927 workplace study. The Hawthorne Effect Case Study: Learning from a Flawed Experiment • Was not a blind study • Did not have a control group • Small Sample Size • Results of the study may have been misinterpreted Flaws in the Hawthorne Study
- 56. Summarizing Activity 5 Steps of the Scientific Method, 2 Variables, and Questions Remaining
- 57. ConductingPsychologicalResearch:MethodsandData Vocabulary • Quantitative • Qualitative • Naturalistic Observation • Interviews • Case Study • Psychological Tests • Longitudinal method • Cross-Sectional Method • Survey Method EQ: How do psychologists use a variety of scientific research methods to draw reasonable conclusions? Activator: Remember the Methods of Research
- 59. Assignment: Experiment Creation • Create a testable thesis • Your group should then design an experiment that could be used to test the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility (bystander effect). • Include as many details as possible. • Be prepared to share out.
- 63. Volunteer Bias • When conducting surveys, bias may occur on the part of the respondents. • Volunteer bias: People who volunteer to participate in studies may have a different outlook from people who do not volunteer. – Volunteers are usually more willing to disclose personal information. – They may have more spare time to participate. – Volunteers probably do not represent the target population.
- 64. ConductingPsychologicalResearch:MethodsandData Vocabulary • Median • Mode • Mean • Correlation coefficient • Central tendency • variability • histogram • descriptive statistics • Inferential statistics • range • standard deviation (SD) • Statistical significance • normal distribution • sample Activator: EQ: How do statistical concepts apply to psychological research? How do ethical and legal guidelines impact psychological research?
- 65. Statistics • Statistics: Branch of mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of data from a sample. • Descriptive Statistics: a way of organizing numbers and summarizing them so that they can be understood. • Two Main Types • Measure of Central Tendency: Used to summarize the data and give you one score that seems typical • Measure of Variability: Used to indicate how spread out the data are. • Inferential Statistics: drawing conclusion by analyzing the data to find differences and meaning in the data
- 66. Critical Thinking Activity Experimental Group Control Group Average Score (Mean) 81% 67% Highest Score 89% 87% Lowest Score 73% 34% Median Score (Mid-Point) 79% 77% Complete Methods of Psychology: Critical Thinking Activity worksheet in your packet.
- 68. Central Tendency • Mean: “The Average” Most commonly used measure of central tendency. Add up all the numbers in a set and then divide by the total amount of numbers used. • Median: Middle number in a set of data(Helps if there are a few extreme scores) • Mode: Most frequent score • Bimodal: two very different yet very frequent scores. In this case no measure of central tendency does you much good.
- 69. Frequency Distribution Frequency Distribution: A table or graph that shows how often different numbers, or scores, appear in a particular set of scores. Polygon Histogram (bar graph) Frequency Table
- 70. Measures of Variability • Range: Difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of scores. • Is limited as a measure of variability when extreme scores are involved
- 71. Measures of Variability • Standard Deviation:
- 72. Measures of Variability • Z-score: The way of calculating how many standard deviations you are away from the mean. Provides a way of comparing sets of data to the normal distribution (such as IQ test scores)
- 74. Curve
- 76. One method psychologists use to analyze and interpret their observations is correlation. Correlation is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another. The stronger the correlation between two things, the more closely the two things are related. • Positive correlation occurs when an increase in one thing is accompanied by an increase in the other. • Negative correlation occurs when a increase in one thing is accompanied by a decrease in the other. (or vice versa) Positive and Negative Correlation Analyzing the Observations • Correlation describes relationships, but it does not reveal cause and effect. • Just because two things are related does not necessarily mean that one causes the other. Limits of Correlation
- 78. Correlation vs. Causation • What do you think is meant by the statement , “Correlation does not imply causation.”?
- 79. Correlational Coefficient • It represents the direction and strength of the relationshp. • Ranges between +1.0 and -1.0. • The closer r is to +1.0 and -1.0 the stronger the relationship
- 80. Assignment: Frankenstein and Ethics • In your packet, read Ethics in Experimentation: Frankenstein and Complete Questions 1, 3-5 • REMINDER: UNIT 1 Exam is Wednesday STUDY!!!
- 81. APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research • Informed Consent - participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent or permission • Deception - if the participants are deceived in any way about the nature of the study, the deception must not be so extreme as to invalidate the informed consent. • Coercion - participants cannot be coerced in any way to give consent to be in the study. • Anonymity-the identities and actions of participants must not be revealed in any way by the researcher. • Risk-participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk. This clause requires interpretation by the review board. • Debriefing Procedures -participants must be told of the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about the results.
- 82. Unit 1 Exam Topics • Definition of Psychology • Applied vs. Research Psychologist • Historical Figures/Contributions • Psychological Perspectives • Experimentation (Terms and Application) • Data (Correlation) • Methods of Research • Ethics